Dream Interpretation According to Psychology

The best approach to dream interpretation is a question that psychologists have a hard time agreeing on. Many, such as Sigmund Freud, adhere to the idea that dreams point to unconscious desires, while others, such as Calvin S. Hall, advocate for a cognitive approach in which dreams reflect different parts of our waking lives. Key Takeaways: Dream Interpretation Many approaches to dream interpretation have been proposed in psychology, including that dreams should be examined for symbols and that they reflect our perspectives on our lives.Psychologists differ on whether dreams serve a real purpose and what that purpose might be.Dream researcher G. William Domhoff observed that interpreting an individuals dreams provides â€Å"a very good psychological portrait of that individual.†Ã‚   What Are Dreams? Dreams are a series of images, emotions, thoughts, and sensations that occur when we sleep. They are involuntary and typically occur during the rapid-eye movement (REM) stage of slumber. Although dreams can occur at other points in the sleep cycle, they’re most vivid and memorable during REM.  Not everyone remembers their dreams, but researchers believe that everyone has three to six 6 dreams in a night and that each dream lasts between 5 and 20 minutes. Even people who do remember their dreams are thought to forget about 95% of them when they wake up. Psychologists offer many reasons for dreaming. Some suggest its simply to clear away useless memories from the previous day and enter important ones into long-term storage. For example, if you have a dream about President Trump swimming with manatees it may be that your brain is in the process of removing a piece of news about the presidential administration and endangered species. On the other hand, many psychologists, especially those involved in therapy, have seen the value of dream analysis. Thus, while dreams may help sort the information in our brains, they may also help us consider information that we ignore when we’re awake. So, perhaps during the day, we focused on tasks that had nothing to do with the news about the presidential administration and endangered species, but then we worked through how we felt about the information during our dreams that night. Others have proposed that dreams are the brain’s way of preparing for possible future challenges. For example, dreams about our teeth falling out could reflect our anxiety about our body giving out on us. Dreams may also serve a problem-solving function as we continue to grapple with challenges, like a difficult work project that we tackled during the day, as we sleep. Psychologists like G. William Domhoff claimed that there is no psychological function for our dreams. Yet, Domhoff also said dreams have meaning because their content is unique to the individual and therefore analyzing an individual’s dreams can provide â€Å"a very good psychological portrait of that individual.†Ã‚   Sigmund Freud’s â€Å"The Interpretation of Dreams† Freud’s perspective on dream interpretation, which he laid out in his seminal book The Interpretation of Dreams, continues to be popular today. Freud believed dreaming was a form of  wish fulfillment that reflected a dreamer’s unconscious desires. He also claimed that the manifest content of a dream, or the literal story or events of the dream, masks the latent content of the dream, or the symbolic or hidden meaning of the dream. For example, if an individual dreams they are flying, it may actually mean that the individual is yearning for freedom from a situation they see as oppressive. Freud called the process of transforming latent content into manifest content â€Å"dreamwork† and suggested it includes several processes: Condensation involves combining multiple ideas or images into one. For instance, a dream about an authority figure could represent one’s parents and one’s boss at the same time.Displacement involves changing the thing we’re really concerned about into something else. For example, if an individual is considering whether to go back to school or to accept a new job, they might dream about two large animals fighting, representing the dilemma they feel about the decision.Symbolization involves one object standing in for another. For example, the use of a gun or sword can be interpreted as having a sexual meaning.Secondary revision involves reorganizing the elements of a dream into a comprehensive whole. This takes place at the end of a dream and results in the dream’s manifest content. Freud also made some suggestions about universal symbols that could be found in dreams. According to Freud, only a few things are symbolized in dreams, including the human body, parents, children, siblings, birth, and death. Freud suggested that the individual was often symbolized by a house, while parents appear as royal figures or other highly respected individuals. Meanwhile, water often references birth, and going on a journey represents death. However, Freud did not put a great deal of weight on universal symbols. He said that symbolism in dreams is often personal and therefore dream interpretation requires an understanding of the dreamer’s individual circumstances. Carl Jung’s Approach to Dream Interpretation Jung was originally a follower of Freud. Even though he eventually broke with him and developed rival theories, Jung’s approach to dream interpretation has some things in common with Freud’s. Like Freud, Jung believed dreams contained latent meaning disguised by manifest content. However, Jung also believed dreams symbolized a person’s desire for balance in their personality, not wish fulfillment. Jung put more weight on a dream’s manifest content than Freud, as he felt that important symbols could be found there. In addition, Jung posited that dreams were expressions of the collective unconscious and could help one anticipate future issues in their life. As an example of his approach to dream interpretation, Jung related a young man’s dream. In the dream the young mans father was driving away erratically. He eventually hit a  wall and wrecked his car because he was drunk. The young man was surprised by the dream as his relationship with his father was positive and his father would never drive drunk in real life. Jung interpreted the dream to mean that the young man felt he was living in his father’s shadow. Thus, the purpose of the dream was to knock the father down while elevating the young man. Jung often used archetypes and universal myths to interpret dreams. As a result, Jungian therapy approaches dream analysis in three stages. First the personal context of the dreamer is considered. Second the dreamer’s cultural context is considered, including their age and environment. Finally, any archetypal content is evaluated in order to discover links between the dream and humanity as a whole. Calvin S. Hall’s Approach to Dream Interpretation Unlike Freud and Jung, Hall didn’t believe that dreams included latent content. Instead, he proposed a cognitive theory that claimed that dreams are simply thoughts that appear in the mind during sleep. As a result, dreams represent our personal lives through the following cognitive structures: Conceptions of the self or how we see ourselves. For example, an individual might dream that they become a powerful businessperson but then lose it all, suggesting the individual sees themselves as strong but is concerned they can’t maintain that strength.Conceptions of others or how the individual views the other important individuals in their life. For instance, if the individual sees their mother as nagging and demanding they will appear that way in the individual’s dreams.Conceptions of the world or how one views their environment. For example, if the individual finds the world cold and unfeeling, their dream may take place in a bleak, snowy tundra.Conceptions of impulses, prohibitions, and penalties or how the dreamer understands his repressed wishes. Hall suggested it’s our understanding of our desires, not the desires themselves, that impact our behavior. Thus, for example, dreams about hitting a wall or other obstacle in the pursuit of pleasure could shed light on the way an individual feels about their sexual impulses.Conceptions of problems and conflict or one’s conceptions of the challenges one faces in life. For instance if the individual sees their mother as nagging, their dream may reflect their dilemma in coping with what they perceive as their mother’s unreasonable demands. Hall came to his conclusions about dreams through an approach he developed with Robert Van De Castle in the 1960s. The approach uses quantitative content analysis to evaluate reports of dreams. The system of content analysis scales provides a scientific way to evaluate dreams. This stands in contrast to Freud and Jung’s approaches to dream interpretation, which lack scientific rigor. Other Psychological Approaches to Dream Interpretation There are several other approaches to dream interpretation that arise from different psychological perspectives. Some of these approaches are already reflected in the researchers mentioned above. Freud’s approach to dream interpretation is utilized by psychodynamic psychologists, while Hall’s approach is shared by cognitive psychologists. Other approaches include: Behavioral psychologists focus on how an individual’s behavior impacts their dreams and the behavior they exhibit within their dreams.Humanistic psychologists see dreams as reflections of the self and how the individual deals with their circumstances. Sources Cherry, Kendra. â€Å"Dream Interpretation: What Do Dreams Mean.† Verywell Mind, 26 July 2019. https://www.verywellmind.com/dream-interpretation-what-do-dreams-mean-2795930Domhoff, G. William. Dreams Have Psychological Meaning and Cultural Uses, but No Known Adaptive Function. The DreamResearch.net Dream Library. https://dreams.ucsc.edu/Library/purpose.htmlHall, Calvin S. A Cognitive Theory of Dreams. The Journal of General Psychology, vol. 49, no. 2, 1953, pp. 273-282. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1953.9710091Hurd, Ryan. Calvin Hall and the Cognitive Theory of Dreaming. Dream Studies Portal. https://dreamstudies.org/2009/12/03/calvin-hall-cognitive-theory-of-dreaming/Jung, Carl. The Essential Jung: Selected Writings. Princeton University Press, 1983.Kluger, Jeffrey. What Your Dreams Actually Mean, According to Science. Time, 12 September, 2017. https://time.com/4921605/dreams-meaning/McAdams, Dan.  The Person: An Introduction to the Science of Personality Psychology. 5t h ed., Wiley, 2008.McAndrews, Frank T. The Freudian Symbolism in Your Dreams. Psychology Today, 1 January, 2018. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/out-the-ooze/201801/the-freudian-symbolism-in-your-dreamsMcLeod, Saul. â€Å"What Are the Most Interesting Ideas of Sigmund Freud.† Simply Psychology, 5 April, 2019. https://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.htmlNichols, Hannah. Dreams: Why Do We Dream? Medical News Today, 28 June, 2018. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/284378.phpSmykowski, Joanna. The Psychology of Dreams: What Do They Mean? BetterHelp, 28 June, 2019. https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/psychologists/the-psychology-of-dreams-what-do-they-mean/Stevens, Anthony. Jung: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 1994.

Sample Resume Employment Interview Questions Essay

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Kate Chopin Questions Free Essays

1. What features make The Awakening a â€Å"local color† story? 2. What customs and beliefs of Edna Pontellier’s society are significant in relation to her psychological development? 3. We will write a custom essay sample on Kate Chopin Questions or any similar topic only for you Order Now What attitudes and tendencies in the Creole characters does Edna have trouble adjusting to? 4. Why did Edna marry Leonce? Is he the model husband? 5. What incidents in the novel reveal that he may not be a good husband for Edna? 6. How do Mlle. Reisz and Mme. Ratignolle function in relation to Edna and the novel’s view of women as mothers and artists? . What kind of mother is Edna? What kind of artist is she? 8. How are the background characters such as the young lovers and the lady in black at the shore, significant in Edna’s story? 9. In detail, explain how the flashbacks to Edna’s past function. How does her father compare to the other men in her life? 10. How does the view of romantic love develop in the course of the novel? What is the doctor’s view of marriage and childbearing? 11. Can you think of an emotional attachment and/or a romantic obsession you have studied in a previous work? How does that incident or character compare with Edna’s emotional and romantic relationships? 12. What are the main images and symbols in the novel? 13. Why does Edna get involved with Alcee Arobin? 14. Why do you suppose critics were outraged at this novel in 1899, saying it committed â€Å"unutterable crimes against polite society† and should be labeled â€Å"poison† to protect â€Å"moral babes†? How to cite Kate Chopin Questions, Papers

Price Rise in India free essay sample

Despite of continuous claims of curbing price rise making by the government, prices of commodities rose by more than 300 per cent in comparison with the per capita income in the past one year. The prices are soaring up more than the income in India. The middle class are being hit hardly with the price rise. According to a study, the prices of eight essential commodities such as wheat, pulses, tea, coffee, sugar, spices and non-vegetarian products has increased at an average of 9 percent in the last one year. However, the household incomes have increased at the rate of 6 percent. The study, further, says that wheat, milk and milk products are expected to have another price hike in the coming months. The UPA government has made a promise to take necessary measures to ease price pressure. According to Assochams Eco Pulse, pulses, coffee, tea and spices prices have put a heavy weight on the pocket of customers. We will write a custom essay sample on Price Rise in India or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Its price have increased between 33. percent and 24. 8 percent in the last one year. Prices of wheat, milk, eggs, fish, meat and sugar rose at 8 percent. On the other hand, the per capita income has increased from Rs 19,500 in 2005 to Rs 20,700. More demand and less supply of these food items is the main reason behind this price rise, a situation arising out of lower market arrivals and lower procurement. This is clearly the case of ignorance by the government.

Case Conceptualization of Janet Using DSM IV

Diagnostic Formulation According to the Multiaxial Diagnostic System of the DSM-IV-TR, the key study, which is Janet’s case, meets the diagnostic formulation of dependent personality disorder, which falls under axis II. However, Janet could also be suffering from other medical issues as will be determined in the clinical diagnosis criteria.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Case Conceptualization of Janet Using DSM IV-TR and Sperry’s Concepts specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Criteria in Clinical Diagnosis The clinical formulation in this case describes speculations about Janet’s core dynamic and primary need for psychotherapy. Janet’s behavior and conduct, as described in the case study, are a clear indication that she suffers from a psychological disorder called dependent personality disorder. According to the DSM-IV-TR, patients who suffer from dependent personality disorder norma lly display a sense of excessive need to be taken care of by other people. This sense leads such patients to become submissive and can never oppose other people’s decisions even if such decisions are not pleasant to them (Ankrom, 2009). This is the case with Janet as exhibited in the way she makes her decisions; her choices are always intended to please other people at the expense of her own happiness. There are several features that people such as Janet who suffer from dependent personality disorder portray. Firstly, such individuals find it difficult to make independent decisions unless they are provided advice and encouragement by other people (Ankrom, 2009). Janet admits that she wants her relationship with Larry to work out, but she holds back most of the things that worry her. She is unable to express her feelings to Larry for fear that things might not work in favor of their relationship. Secondly, patients with dependent personality disorder find it difficult to expre ss disagreement with other individuals and opposition to others peoples’ ideas or decisions, even if they involve and affect them (Sperry, 2005). Such individuals feel that they may lose the support, love or approval of the people who are valuable to them if they opposed their decisions (Ankrom, 2009).Advertising Looking for case study on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the case study, Janet cannot express her feelings to her mother regarding the issue in which she invited some of her relatives to live with her without her daughter’s consent. Janet even proceeds to tell the uncle and the aunt that she was comfortable with their visits and she was happy to have them stay with her for a period of time. There are also other occasions in which Janet gives in to anything that is proposed by her partners in her past relationships without putting across her ideas and feelings. The victims of the psy chological disorder are also known to seek new relationships as fast as they can when the ones they are currently involved in come to an end. They jump into the new relationships with the intention of obtaining care and support from their new partners (Ankrom, 2009). This is evident in Janet’s case given that she has been involved in several relationships since she divorced her ex-husband, with all of them hardly lasting for more than 7 months. It is clear that Janet had been seeking care, comfort, and support from the relationships as she believes that she can never face life on her own. It is the same reasons that are making her cling so much to her new relationship with Larry. People who suffer from dependent personality disorder in most cases wish for other individuals to assume responsibility in all the major areas in their lives. These patients are always unable to initiate projects on their own for lack of self-confidence. This is why their relatives and other people c lose to the patients feel that it is their responsibility to make decisions for them (Ankrom, 2009). In the case study, Janet’s mother makes most decisions for her. Janet also follows the decisions made by her friends, such as that of joining them for a drink after work. Lastly, the patients who suffer from the personality disorder may go an extra mile by accepting to do things that are not pleasing to them in order to obtain nurturance from other people (Ankrom, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Case Conceptualization of Janet Using DSM IV-TR and Sperry’s Concepts specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Janet in the case study admits that she has always found it difficult to say no to someone’s suggestions. She had never opposed suggestions of the partners that she has a relationship with. She also cannot say no to the friends’ demands and suggestions. Other Possible Medical Issue s in the Case Study Apart from the axis II, which has been used to determine the proposition that Janet is suffering from dependent personality disorder, there are other levels of the DSM-IV-TR that can be used to diagnosis her condition. Axis I, which normally involves developmental and learning disorders and a few cases of clinical disorders, does not appear to relate to Janet’s condition in any way (Ankrom, 2009). Therefore, axis I is not applicable to Janet’s case. Like axis I, axis III is also not related to Janet’s condition. The latter level generally involves medical and physical disorders. The most common disorders include mitral value prolapsed and hyperthyroidism, which do not apply to Janet’s case (Ankrom, 2009). However, Axis IV has factors that apply to Janet’s case. Level IV contains factors that contribute to the patient’s current psychiatric disorder. The factors also affect the outcomes of the treatment. Some of the factors include social problems, inadequate support, work issues, problems with education, legal issues, and financial problems (Ankrom, 2009). Axis IV is applicable to Janet’s situation since she has problems at her place of work, especially with the new attorney. Axis V, which is used for global assessment functioning, is a 100-point scale that assists practitioners to describe a patient’s performance in relation to his/her occupational, social, and academic activities (Ankrom, 2009). Janet is likely to score below 50 because her psychological disorder is severe.Advertising Looking for case study on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Summary of the Diagnosis using DSM-IV-TR DSM-Level Diagnosis Axis I Not Applicable Axis II Dependent Personality Disorder Axis III Not Applicable Axis IV Problems with Work Axis V Below 50 Recommended Treatment Approach According to the preliminary diagnosis described above, the following treatment approaches can be recommended for Janet. The main treatment that can help cure Janet’s psychological disorder is psychotherapy (Sperry, 2005). Even though this treatment can be given to people suffering from dependent personality disorder, it works best for the disorder in which the patients greatly depend on other individuals to make the major decisions affecting their lives (Dattilio, 2010). The treatment will work best in Janet’s case as she is extremely submissive to the people around her, who include her mother and boyfriends. The first psychotherapy procedure that can assist Janet overcome the disorder is cognitive behavioral therapy. Cognitive behavior al therapy involves mainly self-talk and direct teachings in which patients are trained on how to recognize their thoughts and actions to help them realize the effect their actions and thoughts have on each other. This therapy also involves teaching and encouraging the patients to learn how to make their own decisions and targets and how to respect and stand by their decisions (Dattilio, 2010). Cognitive behavioral therapy is suitable for Janet’s condition as it will assist her to be aware of her thoughts and what she really wants to do in life. It will also help her to be aware of her actions and the way they relate to her thoughts (Sperry, 2005). This in turn will make her become independent and live without having to follow her mother’s or friends’ decisions. The fact that during this therapy Janet will be taught how to set her own objectives and targets makes it even more suitable for her case. Janet has never been able to set a target for herself and that i s why she is never sure of what she really wants in life. It is likely that if she begins setting her own targets, she will avoid involving herself in multiple relationships. However, it is advisable that the therapist who will be handling Janet’s case ensures that she remains self-limiting during the therapy sessions. Cognitive behavioral therapy is known to promote dependence of the patient on the therapist if not checked properly (Dattilio, 2010). It could be easy for Janet to transfer the dependence she has always put in her boyfriends, friends and the mother to the therapist. This is the main reason the therapist needs to be cautious by allowing her to act and think independently. In order for the cognitive behavioral therapy sessions to be more effective, the therapist will need to incorporate family therapy into the treatment approach. Family therapy involves all the members of the patient’s family. It is mostly important in cases where the family members have d ifficulties getting along with the patient or vice versa. In such cases, the problem of getting along is presumed to be one of the factors that worsen the patient’s condition. For instance, the patients may feel that some of the family members are interfering with their lives and fear to reveal the issue to the people concerned (Dattilio, 2010). Janet in the case study has problems with her mother, friends and partners. The mother seems to be making decisions for Janet, but Janet cannot tell her even in cases where the decisions adversely affect her. Janet does not object to her friends’ decisions and instead she ends up following their decisions all through. The partners that she has had in past relationships have also been controlling her. The family therapy treatment method will make Janet’s mother and friends realize that she needs to be encouraged to make her own decisions and set her own targets. Conclusion Janet’s behavior as described in the case study is a typical case of dependent personality disorder. Janet has difficulties in making her own decisions or setting her own targets. She is unable to object to other people’s decisions, which include those of her mother and friends. The most effective treatments that could assist Janet to get out of this disorder include: cognitive behavioral therapy and family therapy. Cognitive behavioral therapy will assist Janet to make independent decisions and set her own goals. On the other hand, family therapy will ensure that Janet’s mother and her friends learn to respect her decisions. References Ankrom, S. (2009, June 29). Multiaxial diagnostic system of the DSM-IV-TR. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-multi-axial-diagnosis-425180 Dattilio, F. M. (2010). Cognitive-behavioral therapy with couples and families: A comprehensive guide for clinicians. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Sperry, L. (2005). Case conceptualization: A strategy for incorporating indi vidual, couple and family dynamics in the treatment process. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 33(5), 353-364. 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Free Essays on Sartre - Huis Clos

Dans l’essai suivant, je rà ©sumerai l’histoire et caractà ©risai les personnages principaux de l’œuvre Huis Clos de Jean-Paul Sartre. J’ai choisi Huis Clos, parce que j’aime la philosophie existentialiste et l’à ©crivain en gà ©nà ©ral. Joseph Garcin : Garcin est le premier des protagonistes qui arrive dans l’enfer. Il s’à ©tonne de trouver une chambre tout fait  « normal  » avec des peintures du  « Second Empire  ». Il n’y a pas d’ instruments de la torture ou de feu qui sont les typique pour la description de l’enfer. Pendant l’œuvre, le lecteur apprends que Garcin a vit Rio de Janeiro au Brà ©sil, oà ¹ il a travaillà © pour un journal. Il a à ©tà © marià © avec une femme faible qui il traitait trà ¨s mauvais. Chaque nuit il est parti et s’amusait avec du vin et des femmes. Une nuit, il mà ªme prend une fille sa maison pendant que sa femme soit endormie d’en haut. Il essaie de justifier son propre comportement avec l’excuse que tous à ©tait le faut de sa femme. C’est ironique qu’il se retrouve avec Estelle et Inez, deux femmes qu’il ne s’intà ©resse pas ni l’une ni l’autre. Il est condamnà © de passer l’à ©ternità © avec deux femmes bien qu’il prà ©fà ¨re la compagnie des hommes. Cependant, il essaie d’impressionner Estelle et Inez en racontant qu’il à ©tait trà ¨s courageux et noble dans sa vie au monde. En rà ©alità ©, il à ©tait un là ¢che. Pendant la guerre, il a dà ©sertà © de la bataille et essayait s’à ©chapper au Mexique. Il a à ©tà © tuà © par douze coups de feu. De l’enfer, Garcin peut voir sa femme qui port des và ªtements noirs et le pleure. Il n’est pas affectà © par cela. En diffà ©rence, il est choquà © quand il entend Gomez et les autres qui l’appellent un là ¢che. Il essaie de convaincre les autres et soi-mà ªme qu’il soit devenu courageux et droit s’il avait permis vivre. En mà ªme temps, il veut qu’Inez lui dit qu’il n’est pas de là ¢che, mais elle ne le dit ... Free Essays on Sartre - Huis Clos Free Essays on Sartre - Huis Clos Dans l’essai suivant, je rà ©sumerai l’histoire et caractà ©risai les personnages principaux de l’œuvre Huis Clos de Jean-Paul Sartre. J’ai choisi Huis Clos, parce que j’aime la philosophie existentialiste et l’à ©crivain en gà ©nà ©ral. Joseph Garcin : Garcin est le premier des protagonistes qui arrive dans l’enfer. Il s’à ©tonne de trouver une chambre tout fait  « normal  » avec des peintures du  « Second Empire  ». Il n’y a pas d’ instruments de la torture ou de feu qui sont les typique pour la description de l’enfer. Pendant l’œuvre, le lecteur apprends que Garcin a vit Rio de Janeiro au Brà ©sil, oà ¹ il a travaillà © pour un journal. Il a à ©tà © marià © avec une femme faible qui il traitait trà ¨s mauvais. Chaque nuit il est parti et s’amusait avec du vin et des femmes. Une nuit, il mà ªme prend une fille sa maison pendant que sa femme soit endormie d’en haut. Il essaie de justifier son propre comportement avec l’excuse que tous à ©tait le faut de sa femme. C’est ironique qu’il se retrouve avec Estelle et Inez, deux femmes qu’il ne s’intà ©resse pas ni l’une ni l’autre. Il est condamnà © de passer l’à ©ternità © avec deux femmes bien qu’il prà ©fà ¨re la compagnie des hommes. Cependant, il essaie d’impressionner Estelle et Inez en racontant qu’il à ©tait trà ¨s courageux et noble dans sa vie au monde. En rà ©alità ©, il à ©tait un là ¢che. Pendant la guerre, il a dà ©sertà © de la bataille et essayait s’à ©chapper au Mexique. Il a à ©tà © tuà © par douze coups de feu. De l’enfer, Garcin peut voir sa femme qui port des và ªtements noirs et le pleure. Il n’est pas affectà © par cela. En diffà ©rence, il est choquà © quand il entend Gomez et les autres qui l’appellent un là ¢che. Il essaie de convaincre les autres et soi-mà ªme qu’il soit devenu courageux et droit s’il avait permis vivre. En mà ªme temps, il veut qu’Inez lui dit qu’il n’est pas de là ¢che, mais elle ne le dit ...

Ethics in Leadership Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Ethics in Leadership - Research Paper Example For instance, harassing other workers is ethically wrong, and the decision to harass a fellow worker is completely unethical. A second example is that of using the internet supplied by the employer inappropriately, to browse illicit content and for personally-benefiting uses (Kidwell & Kochanowski, 2005). The fact that the behavior of using the internet is inappropriate and the given employee will do that knowingly, gives the proof needed to show that the decision to use it inappropriately was unethical. This paper will explore the reasons as to why people (at the workplace) make unethical decisions, with reference to their situation and environment. The paper will, also, explore the different ways, through which leaders can manage the individuals that engage in negative decision-making. With reference to the variety of the situations that surround the lives of individuals at the workplace, people will make unethical decisions for a wide array of reasons. The reasons behind the making of unethical decision-making is dependent on the rightness or the wrongness of behavior, in terms of the legal, organizational and the societal guidelines used in defining the morality of behaviors (Kidwell & Kochanowski, 2005, p.140). In the current world, unethical behaviors at the workplace have become relatively prevalent, and in some cases, the costs of deviance are high; this has pushed managers to develop mechanisms to handle such behaviors. Some of the factors explored in the next section – as contributors to the making of unethical decisions are more applicable to some forms of decisions and deviance, than others (Peterson, 2002a). The reasons and the factors behind the making of unethical decisions can be traced to social, organizational, individual and interpersonal f actors. The decision-making process of individuals within the workplace

Managing Organisational Change Assessment 3 Essay

Managing Organisational Change Assessment 3 - Essay Example Still, despite the paramount importance of change and the need for continual evolution in the corporate world, there is no dearth of organizations who pathetically fail to qualify the preliminary challenge of recognizing the urgency to alter and change, what to speak of ensuing adjustments and planning. The organization under consideration that is Rondell Data Corporation is an apt example of such a dilemma where an organization fails to acknowledge the pressing need for change, despite being aware of the debilitating warning signals and unhealthy symptoms. Acceptance of change within organisations is a trait that often percolates down from top to bottom (Clement, 1994, p.1). It is the cardinal duty of the top management within an organisation, whether it is the president or the top executives, to clear the behavioural or cultural obstacles that hamper change (Beer, Eisenstat & Spector, 1990, p. 158-166). Specifically speaking, it is the prerogative of the top management to take the necessary steps to bring about the desired changes in all the three aspects of organisational culture i.e. assumptions, values and artefacts, to aid and assist the painful process of change (Schein, 1985, p.25). However, the top management at Rondell seems to be utterly confused or self complacent. The President i.e. Bill Hunt is well aware of the problems being faced by the organisation, but has still chosen to ignore the urgent need for fostering the requisite changes within the organisation. He prefers to act more of an academician, which goes well with his background and favours to delegate the onus for change to his immediate subordinates. To assess an organization's culture, it is often more relevant to consider the behaviours and performance rather then blindly appreciating the stressed upon values (Clement, 1994, p.2). His insistence on maintaining the family spirit at Rondell is not matched by the required levels of output and success.Frank Forbus, though being the incharge of one of the most crucial departments at Rondell i.e. Engineering Services Department, is caught in a precarious situation. Rather then performing the core task of extending engineering related backup and assistance to the concerned departments, most of his time and efforts seems to be engaged in soliciting the cooperation and support of other departmental heads. His commitment and credibility is being severely jeopardized by the limited job security that his position commands (Becker, 1960, p.14). Doc Reeves though enjoys a position of unique importance at Rondell, appears to be least committed to administrative procedures, schedules and deadlines. He is infact more of a visionary academician who prefers to work in isolation from the overall production and sales objectives, a flaw that is severely compromising the sustainability of Rondell (McFarlane, 1993,

Company Law negligence Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Company Law negligence - Case Study Example Section 171 CA 2006 provides that directors have a duty to act within their powers. A director of a company must: (a) act in accordance with the company constitution; and (b) only exercise powers for the purposes for which they are conferred. In the case of Re Smith & Fawcett Ltd [1942] Ch 304 it was held that: "directors must act bona fide in what they consider - not what a court may consider - is in the interest of the co., and not for any collateral purpose".5 Alex, Brad and Carl who are the directors of Zed Ltd owe duties to Zed Ltd and not the employees of the company or anyone else. Since Brad worked as a chemical engineer in the company before becoming a director and the other directors complain that he should have known about this new technology, it must be addressed to what extent Brad's actions were reasonable and whether he had any specialized knowledge to which he should have exercised. As a director, he is obligated under s.172 CA 2006 to promote the success of the company in a way that he considers to be good faith. He must take into consideration the likely consequences of any decisions in the long term; the interests of the company's employees; the need to foster the company's business relationships with suppliers, customers and others; the impact of the company's operations on the community and the environment; the desirability of the company maintaining a reputation for high standards of business conduct, and; the need to act fairly as between members of the company.6 This duty is subjective as per Lord Wilberforce in Howard Smith Ltd v Ampol [1974] AC 821 : "There is no appeal on merits from mangement decisions to courts of law: nor will the courts of law assume to act as a kind of supervisory board over decisions within the powers of maangmeent honestly arrived at".7 In general, the short term view would be that of maximization of profits for shareholders.; the long term view considers ultimate benefit of continued existence of company for all members present and future.8 Each director of Zed Ltd must be seen as taking both into consideration in determining if they were acting bona fide. Moreover, directors not entitled to take into account employee interests as per the case of Parke v Daily News Ltd [1962] 2 All ER 929.9 However, new provision introduced that "directors were to have regard to the interests of the company's employees in general as well as the interests of its members" (s.309 CA 1985).10 However, this section has been widely criticized. The fact that the other directors were accountants would not excuse them in any way if they claim to have been solely relying on Brad's expertise as s.173 CA 2006 imposes that each director has a duty to exercise

Importance Of Time In Distributed Systems

Importance Of Time In Distributed Systems Time is an important and interesting issue in Distributed Systems for several reasons. First, time is a quantity we always want to measure accurately. In order to know at what time of day a particular event occurred at a particular computer, it is necessary to synchronize its clock with an authoritative, external source of time. Second, algorithms that depend upon clock synchronization have been developed for several problems in distribution; these include maintaining the consistency of distributed data, checking the authenticity of a request sent to a server and eliminating the processing of duplicate updates [1] In Centralized systems, there is no need for clock synchronization because, generally, there is only a single clock. A process gets the time by simply issuing a system call to the kernel. When another process after that tries to get the time, it will get a higher time value. Thus, in such systems, there is a clear ordering of events and there is no ambiguity about the times at which these events occur. [4] In Distributed systems, there is no global clock or common memory. Each processor has its own internal clock and its own notion of time. In practice, these clocks can easily drift apart by several seconds per day, accumulating significant errors over time. Also, because different clocks tick at different rates, they may not remain always synchronized although they might be synchronized when they start. This clearly poses serious problems to applications that depend on a synchronized notion of time. Distributed systems are subject to timing uncertainties as certain processes may lack a common notion of real time. Due to an uncertainty in message delay time, absolute process synchronization is known to be impossible for such systems The literature presents issues of timing in distributed systems, physical clocks and their synchronization problems, algorithms for synchronizing physical clocks are presented with their limitations, and also techniques for implementing logical clocks which are used to monitor the order of events without measuring the physical time at which the events occurred The concept of time Let us begin by asking this simple question; does anybody really know what time it is [3] As Lamport notes, the concept of time is fundamental to our way of thinking [7] In fact, real time helps to master many problems of our decentralized real world. Time is also a useful concept when considering possible causality. Consider a person suspected of a crime, if that person has an alibi because he or she was far enough away from the site of the crime at some instant close enough to the time of the crime, then he or she cannot be the culprit. Timing problems Accurate time is important to determining the order in which events occur; [3] this is a basic standard of transactional integrity, system and networkà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ wide logging, auditing, troubleshooting and forensics. Having an accurate time source plays a critical role in tracing and debugging problems that occur on different platforms across a network. Events must be correlated with each other regardless of where they were generated. Furthermore, the notion of time (or time ranges) is used in many forms of access control, authentication, and encryption. In some cases, these controls can be bypassed or rendered inoperative if the time source could be manipulated. For example, a payroll function could be tricked into providing access over a weekend when normally it would be restricted to normal business hours. [3] Physical clocks Most computers today keep track of the passage of time with a battery-backed up Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) clock circuit, driven by a quartz resonator. This allows the timekeeping to take place even if the machine is powered off. When on, an operating system will generally program a timer circuit (a Programmable Interval Timer, or PIT, in older Intel architectures and Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller, or APIC, in newer systems.) to generate an interrupt periodically (common times are 60 or 100 times per second). The interrupt service procedure simply adds one to a counter in memory. While the best quartz resonators can achieve an accuracy of one second in 10 years, they are sensitive to changes in temperature and acceleration and their resonating frequency can change as they age. Standard resonators are accurate to 6 parts per million at 31 °C, which corresponds to  ±Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ½ second per day. The problem with maintaining a concept of time is when multiple entities expect each other to have the same idea of what the time is. Two watches hardly ever agree. Computers have the same problem: a quartz crystal on one computer will oscillate at a slightly different frequency than on another computer, causing the clocks to tick at different rates. The phenomenon of clocks ticking at different rates, creating an ever widening gap in perceived time is known as clock drift. The difference between two clocks at any point in time is called clock skew and is due to both clock drift and the possibility that the clocks may have been set differently on different machines. The Figure below illustrates this phenomenon with two clocks, A and B, where clock B runs slightly faster than clock A by approximately two seconds per hour. This is the clock drift of B relative to A. At one point in time (five seconds past five oclock according to As clock), the difference in time between the two clocks is approximately four seconds. This is the clock skew at that particular time. Compensating for drift We can envision clock drift graphically by considering true Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) flowing on the x-axis and the corresponding computers clock reading on the y-axis. A perfectly accurate clock will exhibit a slope of one. A faster clock will create a slope greater than unity while a slower clock will create a slope less than unity. Suppose that we have a means of obtaining the true time. One easy (and frequently adopted) solution is to simply update the system time to the true time. To complicate matters, one constraint that well impose is that its not a good idea to set the clock back. The illusion of time moving backwards can confuse message ordering and software development environments. If a clock is fast, it simply has to be made to run slower until it synchronizes. If a clock is slow, the same method can be applied and the clock can be made to run faster until it synchronizes. The operating system can do this by changing the rate at which it requests interrupts. For example, suppose the system requests an interrupt every 17 milliseconds (pseudo-milliseconds, really the computers idea of what a millisecond is) and the clock runs a bit too slowly. The system can request interrupts at a faster rate, say every 16 or 15 milliseconds, until the clock catches up. This adjustment changes the slope of the system time and is known as a linear compensating Function. After the synchronization period is reached, one can choose to resynchronize periodically and/or keep track of these adjustments and apply them continually to get a better running clock. This is analogous to noticing that your watch loses a minute every two months and making a mental note to adjust the clock by that amount every two months (except the system does it continually). Synchronizing physical clocks With physical clocks, our interest is not in advancing them just to ensure proper message ordering, but to have the system clock keep good time. We looked at methods for adjusting the clock to compensate for skew and drift, but it is essential that we get the time first so that we would know what to adjust. One possibility is to attach a GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver to each computer. A GPS receiver will provide time within  ± 1 msec. of UTC time but Unfortunately, they rarely work indoors. Alternatively, if the machine is in the U.S., one can attach a WWV radio receiver to obtain time broadcasts from Texas, Colorado or Washington, DC, giving accuracies of  ± 3-10 msec. depending on the distance from the source. Another option is to obtain a GOES (Geostationary Operational Environment Satellites) receiver, which will provide time within  ± 0.1 msec. of UTC time. For reasons of economy, convenience, and reception, these are not practical solutions for every machine. Most machines will set their time by asking another machine for the time (preferably one with one of the aforementioned time sources). A machine that provides this information is called a time server. Several algorithms have been proposed for synchronizing clocks and they all have the same underlying model of the system Cristians algorithm The simplest algorithm for setting the time would be to simply issue a remote procedure call to a time server and obtain the time. That does not account for the network and processing delay. We can attempt to compensate for this by measuring the time (in local system time) at which the request is sent (T0) and the time at which the response is received (T1). Our best guess at the network delay in each direction is to assume that the delays to and from are symmetric (we have no reason to believe otherwise). The estimated overhead due to the network delay is then (T1- T0)/2. The new time can be set to the time returned by the server plus the time that elapsed since the server generated the timestamp: Suppose that we know the smallest time interval that it could take for a message to be sent between a client and server (either direction). Lets call this time Tmin. This is the time when the network and CPUs are completely unloaded. Knowing this value allows us to place bounds on the accuracy of the result obtained from the server. If we sent a request to the server at time T0, then the earliest time stamp that the server could generate the timestamp is T0 + Tmin. The latest time that the server could generate the timestamp is T1 Tmin, where we assume it took only the minimum time, Tmin, to get the response. The range of these times is: T1 T0 2Tmin, so the accuracy of the result is: Errors are cumulative. If machine A synchronizes from a server B and gets an accuracy of  ±5 msec but server B in turn got its time from server C with an accuracy of  ±7 msec, the net accuracy at machine A is  ±(5+7), or  ±12 msec. Several time requests may be issued consecutively in the hope that one of the requests may be delivered faster than the others (e.g., it may be submitted during a time window when network activity is minimal). This can achieve improved accuracy. Cristians algorithm suffers from the problem that afflicts all single-server algorithms: the server might fail and clock synchronization will be unavailable. It is also subject to malicious interference. Berkeley algorithm The Berkeley algorithm, developed by Gusella and Zatti in 1989 [8], is form of an internal synchronization that does not assume that any machine has an accurate time source with which to synchronize. Instead, it opts for obtaining an average time from the participating computers and synchronizing all machines to that average. The machines involved in the synchronization each run a time dà ¦mon process that is responsible for implementing the protocol. One of these machines is elected (or designated) to be the master. The others are slaves. The server polls each machine periodically, asking it for the time. The time at each machine may be estimated by using Cristians method to account for network delays. When all the results are in, the master computes the average time (including its own time in the calculation). The hope is that the average cancels out the individual clocks tendencies to run fast or slow. Instead of sending the updated time back to the slaves, which would introduce further uncertainty due to network delays, it sends each machine the offset by which its clock needs adjustment. The operation of this algorithm is illustrated in the Figure below. Three machines have times of 3:00, 3:25, and 2:50. The machine with the time of 3:00 is the server (master). It sends out a synchronization query to the other machines in the group. Each of these machines sends a timestamp as a response to the query. The server now averages the three timestamps: the two it received and its own, computing (3:00+3:25+2:50)/3 = 3:05. Now it sends an offset to each machine so that the machines time will be synchronized to the average once the offset is applied. The machine with a time of 3:25 gets sent an offset of -0:20 and the machine with a time of 2:50 gets an offset of +0:15. The server has to adjust its own time by +0:05. The algorithm also has provisions to ignore readings from clocks whose skew is too great. The master may compute a fault-tolerant average averaging values from machines whose clocks have not drifted by more than a certain amount. If the master machine fails, any other slave could be elected to take over Logical clocks Lets again consider cases that involve assigning sequence numbers (timestamps) to events upon which all cooperating processes can agree. What matters in these cases is not the time of day at which the event occurred but that all processes can agree on the order in which related events occur. Our interest is in getting event sequence numbers that make sense system-wide. If we can do this across all events in the system, we have something called total ordering: every event is assigned a unique timestamp (number), every such timestamp is unique. However, we dont always need total ordering. If processes do not interact then we dont care when their events occur. If we only care about assigning timestamps to related (causal) events then we have something known as partial ordering. Leslie Lamport [7] developed a happened before notation to express the relationship between events: aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b means that a happened before b. If a represents the timestamp of a message sent and b is the timestamp of that message being received, then aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b must be true; a message cannot be received before it is sent. This relationship is transitive. If aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b and bà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢c then aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢c. If a and b are events that take place in the same process the aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b is true if a occurs before b. The importance of measuring logical time is in assigning a time value to each event such that everyone will agree on the final order of events. That is, if aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b then clock (a) < clock (b) since the clock (our timestamp generator) must never run backwards. If a and b occur on different Processes that do not exchange messages (even through third parties) then aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b is not true, these events are said to be concurrent: there is no way that a could have influenced b. Each event is assigned a timestamp by its respective process. The process simply maintains a global counter that is incremented before each event gets a timestamp. If we examine the timestamps from our global perspective, we can observe a number of peculiarities. Event g, the event representing the receipt of the message sent by event a, has the exact same timestamp as event a when it clearly had to take place after event a. Event e has an earlier time stamp (1) than the event that sent the message (b, with a timestamp of 2). Lamports algorithm Lamport [7] proposed an algorithm that forces the resequencing of timestamps to ensure that the happened before relationship is properly depicted for events related to sending and receiving messages. It works as follows: Each process has a clock, which can be a simple counter that is incremented for each event. The sending of a message is an event and each message carries with it a timestamp obtained from the current value of the clock at that process (sequence number). The arrival of a message at a process is also an event will also receive a timestamp by the receiving process, of course. The process clock is incremented prior to time stamping the event, as it would be for any other event. If the clock value is less than the timestamp in the received message, the systems clock is adjusted to the (messages timestamp + 1). Otherwise nothing is done. The event is now time stamped. If we apply this algorithm to the same sequence of messages, we can see that proper message ordering among causally related events is now preserved. Note that between every two events, the clock must tick at least once. [4] Lamports algorithm [7] allows us to maintain proper time ordering among causally- related events. In summary, Lamports algorithm requires a monotonically increasing software counter for a clock that has to be incremented at least when events that need to be time stamped take place. These events will have the clock value, or Lamport timestamp, associated with them. For any two events, where aà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢b, L (a) < L (b) where L(x) represents the Lamport timestamp for event x. Lamport timestamps [7] assure us that if there is a causal relationship between two events, then the earlier event will have a smaller time stamp than the later event. Causality is achieved by successive events on one process or by the sending and receipt of messages on different processes. As defined by the happened-before relationship, causality is transitive. For instance, events a and f are causally related in the figure above (through the sequence a, b, e, f). Implementing Logical clocks To implement logical clocks, [11] each process p, maintains data structures that give it the following two capabilities: A logical clock, denoted by C, that helps P, measure its own progress; and A global logical clock denoted by gC, that represents Ps local view of the global logical time. A protocol is presented to update the data structures; the protocol ensures that a processs logical clock and its view of the global time are consistent. The protocol consists of the following two rules: R1. maintains how a process updates the local logical clock when it executes an Event, whether send or receive R2. maintains how a process updates its global logical clock to update its view of the Global time. It dictates what information about the logical time a process Piggybacks in a message and how the receiving process uses this information to Update its view of the global time A distributed system consisting of logical clocks differ in their representation of logical time and in the protocol for updating logical clocks. However, all systems consisting of logical clocks implements some form of R1 and R2 and thereby achieving the fundamental monotonicity property associated with events and casualty Total ordering of events Note that it is very possible for multiple non-causal (concurrent) events to share identical Lamport timestamps (e.g., c, e, and h in the Figure above). This may cause confusion if multiple processes need to make a decision based on the timestamps of two events. The selection of a specific event may not matter if the events are concurrent but we want all the processes to be able to make the same decision. This is difficult if the timestamps are identical. Fortunately, theres an easy remedy. We can create a total order on events by further qualifying them with identities of processes. We define a global logical timestamp (Ti,i) where Ti represents the local Lamport timestamp and i represents the process ID (in some globally unique way: for example, a concatenation of host address and process ID). We are then able to globally compare these timestamps and conclude that There is no physical significance to the order since process identifiers can be arbitrary and do not relate to event ordering but the ability to ensure that no two Lamport timestamps are the same globally is helpful in algorithms that need to compare these timestamps. In real life, depending on the application, one may use a combination of thread ID, process ID, and IP address as a qualifier to the timestamp. Vector clocks If two events are causally related and event e happened before event e then we know that L (e) < L (e). However, the converse is not necessarily true. With Lamports algorithm, if L (e) < L (e) we cannot conclude that eà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢e. Hence, if we look at Lamport timestamps, we cannot conclude which pairs of events are causally related and which are not. One solution that has been proposed to deal with this problem is the concept of vector clocks (proposed by Mattern in 1989 and Fidge in 1991) [9, 10]. A vector clock in a system of N processes is a vector of N integers. Each process maintains its own vector clock (Vi for a process Pi) to timestamp local events. Like Lamport timestamps, vector timestamps (the vector of N integers) are sent with each message. The rules for using vector clocks are: The vector is initialized to 0 at all processes: Vi[j] = 0 for i,j = 1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N Before a process Pi timestamps an event, it increments its element of the vector in its local vector: Vi[i] = Vi[i]+1 A message is sent from process Pi with Vi attached to the message. When a process Pj receives a vector timestamp t, it compares the two vectors element by element, setting its local vector clock to the higher of the two values: Vj[i] = max(Vj[i], t[i]) for i=1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N We compare two vector timestamps by defining: V = V iff V[j] = V'[j] for i=1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N V à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ V iff V[j] à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ V'[j] for i=1, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, N For any two events e, e, if eà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢e then V(e) < V(e). This is the same as we get from Lamports algorithm. With vector clocks, we now have the additional knowledge that if V(e)

thomas paine :: essays research papers

Thomas Paine was more than just a writer. He did many things in his life. He wrote pamphlets and books like the Common Sense, or African Slavery on America. He is still recognized for his writings today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thomas Paine was born on January 29, 1737 in Thetford, England. He was the son of a farmer and corsetmaker. He went to a local school until the age of thirteen. We was forced to leave school so he could help his father at work. He went through many jobs, and felt unhappy at everyone he tried.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He went to sea at the age of nineteen. He traveled from place to place meeting many different people. He got married, but unfortunately she died a year later in 1760. He remarried in 1771. But again he was separated from her three years later. His appointment as excise collector in 1762 was lost in 1765 because of an improper entry report. ( Encyclopedia of World Biography, 66)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paine moved to America because of a London meeting with Benjamin Franklin. He got a job writing for a magazine called the Pennsylvania Magazine, and eventually became the editor. He wrote the Common Sense in 1776, about independence. It was a instantaneous success. It was even translated into German and printed in England, Scotland, Holland, and France. It sold 120,000 in just three months, and over six million today. It was said to get the people ready for the Declaration of Independence soon after.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For the remainder of the Revolution he was with Washington’s soldiers. He wrote The Crisis which appeared between December 1776 and April 1783. Again he was Paine was know for his phrasemaking. In his later papers Paine attacked Tories, profiteers, inflationists, and counterfeiters. (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 66) On April 19, 1783, he concluded his Crisis series on a note of expectations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He lived quietly after the Revolution. He worked on several inventions, like a pierless iron bridge to cross the Schuylkill River. He wrote the Age of Reason, in 1794, which was a direct attack on the irrationality of religion and a defense of deism. Despite Paine’s belief in the Creator, it was suppressed in England.